Esther M. Zimmer Lederberg: Perspective Theatres

King Gustav had the "English Park" at Drottningholm designed in the style of Capability Brown (Lancelot Brown, 1716-1783). Here we can see Appuldurcombe country garden, and an inset portrait of Capability Brown. In England, the country gardens of Capability Brown are associated with Protestantism, as opposed to Baroque palace gardens, which are associated with Catholicism. The differences in garden styles are less strictly observed in Sweden. ² Click to see Drottningholm palace gardens.

The Renaissance theatre was designed with a proscenium, a place for an orchestra, and seating for an audience. At first, stage machines that allowed for rapid change of scenery, called periaktoi, were used. The periaktoi were usually several triangular cylinders (prisms) with different scenes on each side. The scenes were painted in perspective. Scenery could be changed rapidly simply by rotating the periaktoi. Unfortunately, the periaktoi were cumbersome, so Giacomo Torelli used flats or movable wings that extended below the stage floor. The portion of the flats below the stage floor were connected by a winch using ropes and pulleys that allowed the flats on both the left side of the stage and the right side of the stage to be simultaneously moved thus allowing immediate change of scenery on both sides of the stage. Note: the corago had the task of finding, maintaining, and setting up (as needed) all decorations, devices, and equipment needed for any theatrical event. Some of the first stage machinery was designed by Brunelleschi and Leonardo da Vinci. Trompe l'oeil using linear perspective was used in the first Renaissance theatres. ³ Ferdinando Galli da Bibiena used multiple vanishing points on stage scenery, including the use of scena per angolo or "horned" perspective (multiple vanishing points).

The stage was raked (raised at an angle) to be compatible with recession into the distance, according to linear perspective. Stage scenery in linear perspective was called "scénography". The scenery was typically painted to be compatible with the linear perspective of the stage. Click here to see a diagram explaining aspects of theatre design evolution.

Early theatre design used "periaktos" (discussed in Vitruvius, and used in Renaissance theatres by Nicola Sabbattini, 1574-1654). A "periaktoi" was typically a three- or four-sided cylinder, each face having a different scene painted on it, in linear perspective. Several such cylinders could be used. By rotating the faces of several of these cylinders in succession, rapid scenery changes were effected. Of course, other "periaktos" designs could be used, such as five- or six-faced cylinders ( click here ).

Later, "periaktos" were replaced by "flats" or sliding and removable wings. These flats moved in grooves in the stage, and were also painted with scenes in linear perspective. The flats originally projected at right angles from the stage, but later changed such that these wings projected at an angle, allowing actors and props to be more easily hidden from the view of the audience ( click here ). Flats could be used to almost instantaneously change scenery, but lighting as well (as dark scenery could be replaced by light scenery). In our times, scenery and props are typically changed unseen, between acts. During the Baroque, the audience often liked to see the scenery being changed, called "changement à vue".

Baroque theatres were a part of the society that existed. Specifically, these were the times during which a crown nobility ruled, in conjunction with aristocrats and the clergy. Rule was by and in conjunction with Christian princes. This society was based upon peasants. Peasants located in the farming countryside, with occasional towns with guilds and merchants. These three estates: nobility, church clergy, and peasants were reflected in the theatres. For example, the Markgräfliches Opernhaus in Bayreuth had three tiers, one reserved for each estate. As yet another example of class (estate) being represented in theatre design, the crown nobility usually were seated in a crown loge or box (the "presence" referred to by dance authority, Wendy Hilton ⁴). However, at Drottningholm, the crown nobility sat in two chairs (thrones). Sometimes other loges (boxes) existed (such as "incognito boxes" where persons could see the stage, but not be seen). At Drottningholm, two boxes were typically used to hold musicians (trumpet loges), although bourgeois loges also existed at other theatres. At Drottningholm, there was not only a stage curtain, but a second audience curtain that separated the lower class people from the aristocrats seated towards the front of the audience. Theatres and stages evolved, thus earlier stages had wings or flats that were moved independently by people, as opposed to more advanced stages such as at Drottningholm, where winches, ropes and pulleys moved the wings simultaneously. As another example, the Residenztheatre in Munich had a raked auditorium in which the angle of raking was adjustable. After all, is the audience in the auditorium observing the stage (and crown presence) or is the crown presence observing his audience in his auditorium? "The world is but a theatre." ⁵ Drottningholm was not so well equipped as the Residenztheatre in Munich. Thus a distinction should be made between a Baroque stage vs a Baroque theatre click here. These theatres used complex machinery to allow special effects. This machinery included:

Trap doors on the stage. These were typically used with sound effects such as thunder, and lightning, that would usually accompany the entry of characters from the underworld.

Choron's Steps. These were underground steps that led from under the stage and emerged near the seats in the audience. The entry of characters using these steps would be accompanied by sound effects such as thunder, and lightening, usually associated with the underworld. The audience was typically rather startled to find a devil suddenly appear, only a few inches away.

Overhead moving panels, often in the shape of clouds, enabling several characters dressed as angels or gods to ride across the heavens.

"Deus ex machina" (literally, "god in a machine") that allowed gods or goddesses to "fly" from the heavens and alight upon the stage! A stage derrick or crane would be used for this purpose, with ropes not easily seen by the audience to carry actors through the air, very much in the style of a modern "Peter Pan" ( click here ).

Rolling thunder machines were effected in several ways, including rolling canon balls, or using a heavy wooden cylinder with raised or projecting edges to produce sound as it rolled. For best effect, these could be used either overhead or under the stage, as if the thunder was in the heavens or in the underworld. Sometimes sheets of thin metal were used to produce a sound of thunder.

Lightning machines were jagged pieces of wood, with a shining metal edge so that when the wood was moved (pieces slided) the edges caught the light and created the effect of lightning.

Rain machines were circular cylinders containing sand. When these cylinders were cranked causing them to rotate, the sand would fall, producing a sound that very effectively sounded like rain.

Wind machines were circular cylinders with somewhat abrasive surfaces. When the surface of these cylinders were cranked, causing them to rotate, the abrasive surfaces would rub against other surfaces, producing a sound much like wind. By gradually increasing the rate at which the circular cylinders rotated, the sound of wind in storms was produced. These sounds were evocative of what the Renaissance audience thought sailing ships experienced when sailing to the New World or the Asian Spice Islands.

Wave machines were composed of several large, long circular cylinders with grooves. These cylinders were covered with a canvas-like cloth, often colored blue to simulate ocean seas. When these cylinders were simultaneously rotated, the grooves looked like waves. The speed of rotation could be slow (calm seas), or could be fast for angry seas in storms! When coupled with wind machines, rain machines, and thunder boxes, with lightning, an very realistic effect was produced.

Machines for some special purpose could be created. Thus Graf (Count) N. Sheremetev had a special machine constructed and located under his serf theatre stage at his estate "Ostankino". This machine consisted of three large wooden cylinders. This machine produced the sound of marching armies. Russia had been involved in several wars: Sweden (access to the Baltic: Poltava), Ottomans (access to the Black Sea: Ismail, for example). France (Napoléon in 1812, and Suverov in the Alps: 1806). War at home (Pugachev Rebellion 1773-75). A war environment on the stage was a significant feature in Russian theatre, that reflected Russian social experience. In addition to the unique machine that produced the sound of marching armies, used at Ostankino, a primitive "spotlight" was also developed and used at the Ostankino theatre!

The design of theatres to allow large audiences to see the stage, to support orchestras, the use of linear perspective scénography, the use of theatre machinery to raise or lower curtains, simultaneously move wings (flats), support the use of "flying" aerial gods and goddesses, trap doors, and special effects such as rain machines, wind machines, rolling thunder with lightning, theatre lighting, costume design, effective music and dancing, are further examples of "rhetoric tacens": silent or performative rhetoric, but now applied to the theatre.

The lighting in Renaissance theatres was based upon candles (with reflective "basons"), chandeliers using candles, torches, etc. As a consequence, most of these theatres burned down. However, a few such "perspective theatres" still exist ^{6, 7} (see References for examples of works perfomed at Drottningholm Court Theatre). Lighting and costume were very demanding in Baroque theatres. Thus mirrors, spangles, sequins, stones, and metalic thread were used as a source of on-stage illumination on clothing. Similarly, wide farthingales with panniers made navigation between flats difficult for actresses or dancers.

Using a pulley, a chandelier with lit candles could be rapidly raised into position, above the heads of the audience. As melted wax from these candles could fall upon the heads of the audience below, these candles were set into small dishes used to collect the melted wax. If candles burned out, these same pulleys with ropes attached to the chandeliers could be used to rapidly lower the chandeliers and replenish the chandeliers with new candles (and wax removed from the wax collecting dishes). These candles smoked, causing an unpleasant odor, but perfumes could be mixed into the wax. To rapidly light candles in the lowered chandeliers, a wire covered with an inflamable material encircled the chandelier and thus all the candles. When this imflamable material was ignited, it rapidly spread around the wire, therby ignighting all the candles. ⁹

If colored glass (like that used in church windows) cylinders encircled these candles, lighting of different colors could be used on stage, and such cylinders could be rapidly replaced with other cylinders to change stage lighting geometries. See below:

Examining the figure above, it is clear that two sources of illumination can simultaneously be controlled to provide more (or less) light. The figure below shows that this methodology can be extended to many sources of illumination.

The effectiveness of stage lighting, as well as use of stage machinery by the corago in Bernardo Buontalenti's Il rapimento di Cefalo has been well described. ¹⁰

¹ Orchestre, Choeurs & Danseurs du Poème Harmonique, Dumestre, Vincent; Lazar, Benjamin; Skamletz, Gudrun; "Cadmus & Hermione": tragédie lyrique, musique de Jean-Baptiste Lully et livret de Philippe Quinault"

² Sauter, Willmar and Wiles, David; "The Theatre of Drottningholm - Then and Now: Performances between the 18th and 21st centuries", Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis, Stockholm Theatre Studies 4, Stockholm University, 2014, pp. 127, 137

³ Pirrotta, Nino, and Povoledo, Elena; "Music and Theatre from Poliziano to Monteverdi", Cambridge Univ., 1982, pp. 3, 40, 41
Also:
Radice, Mark A. (Ed.); "Opera in Context: Essays on Historical Staging from the Late Renaissance to the time of Puccini", Amadeus Press, Portland, Oregon, 1998, p. 22

According to Nicola Sabbatini, "... the stage should reach no higher than the middle of an average man's chest, or about 4.5 feet (1.4 meters).",

Radice, Mark A. (Ed.); "Opera in Context: Essays on Historical Staging from the Late Renaissance to the time of Puccini", Amadeus Press, Portland, Oregon, 1998, p. 22

⁴ Hilton, Wendy; "Dance and Music of Court and Theatre: Selected Writings of Wendy Hilton", Pendragon Press, Stuyvesant, New York, 1997, p. 85

⁵ Sauter, Willmar and Wiles, David; "The Theatre of Drottningholm - Then and Now: Performances between the 18th and 21st centuries", Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis, Stockholm Theatre Studies 4, Stockholm University, 2014, pp. 121-124

⁷ Beijer, Agne; "Court Theatres of Drottningholm and Gripsholm", Benjamin Blom, New York, 1972

⁸ Perspective theatres with raked stages, flats and paintings emphasizing linear perspective, using theatre stage machinery such as cloud machines, rolling-thunder boxes, lightning effects, wind machines and wave machines, etc. have been forgotten and are ill-understood by many opera and ballet audiences and critics. Thus, when Renaissance or Baroque theatres are described, one cannot always be sure if the theatre really is a perspective theatre. However, it is quite possible (for example) that the Markgräflerland Opera (Margravial Opera House or Markgräfliches Opernhaus) in Bayreuth is yet another Baroque perspective theatre.

⁹ Hewitt, Barbara (Editor); "The Renaissance Stage: Documents of Serlio, Sabbattini and Furtenbach", Univ. of Miami Press, 1958, pp. 111-113

¹⁰ Radice, Mark A. (Ed.); "Opera in Context: Essays on Historical Staging from the Late Renaissance to the time of Puccini", Amadeus Press, Portland, Oregon, 1998, pp. 27-35

¹¹ Linthicum, M. Channing; "Costume in the Drama of Shakespeare and his Contemporaraies", Russell & Russell, 1963

Esther M. Zimmer Lederberg
Perspective Theatres¹

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Existing Baroque Theatres

Esther M. Zimmer Lederberg Perspective Theatres1

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Existing Baroque Theatres

Esther M. Zimmer Lederberg
Perspective Theatres¹